A refreshing course to review western medicine on Biology, Biochemistry and Nutrition on a western scientific point of view. Here are some notes in case you are interested.

WM301 Biology, Biochemistry, Nutrition	
anatomy	Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts
	Subdivision: Gross anatomy- large visible to the naked eye structures
	regional anatomy- abdomen, extremities
	systemic anatomy- cardiovascular system, etc.
	Surface anatomy
	Microscopic anatomy: microscope
	Cytology: study of body cells
	Histology: study of body tissues
Physiology	Study of how the body and it parts work or function, to carry out their life-sustaining activities.
	Subdivision: Cellular physiology
	Tissue Physiology (how does tissue repair itself.
	Bone physiology
	Muscular physiology
Relationship between A & P	always related- function reflects structure
	structure of the unit determines the function
	ex. Lungs- not muscular chambers like the heart, cannot pump blood
	Have thin walls between air sacs. Allow easy exchange of gases, provides oxygen to the body.
6 Level of structural organization	Smallest to largest
	1. Chemical Level- C, O, N, H, etc, molecules like H20 (water), C6H12O6 (glucose), combine to organelles
	2. Cellular level- smallest living thing, different shapes and sizes, reflects different functions.
	3. Tissue level- cells with common function.
	Epithelial (covers)- lining of GI tract, skin surface
	Muscles (movement), cardiac, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle
	connective (support)- adipose tissue, bone, tendon.
	Nervous tissue- internal communication. Brain, spinal cord, nerves
	4. Organ level- composed of multiple tissue types to perform specific task. Ex. SI absorbs, digests food.
	5. Organ system level– groups of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose.
	ex. Digestive system: esophagus, stomach, Si, Li independent jobs- move food through the tract, absorb, fuel
	13 systems:
	Integumentary- protects, vit D, sensory receptors- pain , pressure, sweat glands
	Skeletal- protect body organs, structure, movement, blood cells, minerals
	Muscular- locomotion, facial expression, posture, heat
	Nervous- fast acting control system of body, responds to changes, muscles and glands. Brain, nerves, etc.
	Circulatory- blood vessels transport blood, oxygen, nutrients, hormones, waste, heart pump.
	Endocrine- hormones for growth, reproduction, pineal, pituitary, thyroid, thymus, adrenal, testes, ovary,
	Lymphatic- nodes, vessels, fluid leaked from blood, dispose of debris, WBC, immunity
	Digestive- food to absorb nutrients, enter blood, eliminated as feces
	Respiratory- blood supplied with o2, exchange gases of carbon dioxide
	Urinary- eliminate nitrogen wastes from the body, regulate water and electrolytes, acid-base balance of blood.
	Reproductive- male- sperm testes, women ovaries- egg.
	6. Organismal level: human, sum of all structure levels working together to keep us alive
Maintaining Life	Necessary functions: maintain boundaries, move, respond to environment, digest nutrients
	remove waste, metabolism, dispose of waste, reproduce
	Survival needs nutrients, oxygen, water, appropriate temperature, atmospheric pressure
	Boundaries: insides vs outsides. Cellular level: membranes, substances in and out of cell.
	Organism level: surrounded by skin, protects organs from drying out, bacteria, heat, sunlight, chemicals.
	Movement: muscular and skeletal system, walk, run, swim, manipulate with fingers, propel blood, food, urine.
	Responsiveness: nervous system, touch
	Take in and Digest: breaking down food into simple molecules, to be absorbed by blood
	Metabolism: chemical reactions. Catabolism breaks down substances to basic building blocks,
	Anabolism- make larger substances from smaller ones. ATP energy molecules of the cell.
	dispose of waste: Lungs- carbon dioxide, Bladder- urine, LI- feces
	Growth- cells can increase size w/o dividing. Cell shave destructive and constructive activities.
	Reproductive- Cellular: mitosis (two daughter cells w/same genetic material) for body growth and repair.
	Organism level- Meiosis, reproductive sex cells. 1/2 genes needs sperm/egg.
survival needs	Nutrients: carbohydrates/starches energy providing fuel, Proteins build cell structures,
	Fats- help with cell structure and reserve fuel. Mineral/vitamin: for chemical reactions in cells, transport O2 blood
	Oxygen- chemical reactions that release energy from foods require O2. 20% of air is O2.
	Water- 60-80% of your body is water. Fluid base for secretions and excretions.
	Water- Lost in lungs, skin, urine, gained ingestion of liquids and foods.
	body temperature- must be maintained 37 c or 98.6 F. too low metabolic slow, too high metabolic speeds up
	proteins are broken down, most body heat is from muscle activity of skeleton.
	Atmospheric pressure- force exerted on the body by the weight of the air. Breathing is dependent.
Homeostasis	The body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though outside is constantly changing.
	dynamic state of equilibrium. Body is in homeostasis when its needs are met and function smoothly.
	How: a good nervous system carrying the information between organ systems, endocrine hormones trigger reactions
	Afferent pathways: receptor, sensor to monitor and respond to changes, send info
	Control center- determines the level at which variable is to be maintained (set point),
	receives info, analyzes the info, response.
	Efferent pathway: effector carries out the response from control center, responds to feedback to influence stimulus.
2 feedback mechanisms	Negative: depresses, shuts off control mechanism, majority. Ex. Heart rate regulation, blood glucose level,
	blood pressure, breathing rate.
	Positive: enhances it, reaction continues at a faster rate, increases stimulus, rare events: blood clotting, birth.
	ex. Like getting cut and body repairs the cut with blood clotting factor.
Language of anatomy:	Prone, supine, superior, inferior, ventral, dorsal, medial, lateral, intermediate
	Proximal, distal, superficial, deep
Basic chemistry	Describes the interaction of energy and chemicals.
	Matter is the stuff of the universe.
	Mass- quantitative aspect of object occupies space, weight part of force by gravity.
	Matter is solid, liquid, gas.
	physical change- do not alter the basic nature of a substance
	chemical changes- do alter the composition of the substance
Energy	has no mass and does not take up space. Ability to do work or to put matter in motion.
	Kinetic energy- energy is doing work
	Potential energy- stored energy. Glucose and glycogen store energy until oxidized.
	Matter is the substance; energy is the mover of the substance.
	Chemical energy is stored in the bonds of chemical substances.
	Electrical energy- movement of charged particles, ions move across cell membranes
	Nervous system uses nerve impulses.
	Mechanical energy- directly involves moving matter. Bicycle riding legs
	Radiant energy- travels in waves- x-ray, UV ray, heat waves, radio waves.
Energy forms conversion	through chemical energy.
	ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), chemical energy in food
	Thermal energy- in conversion there is a loss of heat.
elements	Periodic table. H, C, O , N 96% of body.
	subatomic particles- protons, neutrons, electrons
	Radioisotopes
	Molecules- two or more atoms combine.
	Chemical bonds- valence shell
	Ions- atoms that have gained or lost electrons
	Planetary model- atom portrayed as a mini solar system
	Atomic nucleus- heavier particles proton and neutron
	Orbital model- electrons outside nucleus
Atomic weight	atomic number- number of protons, equal to number of electrons
	atomic mass number- sum of protons and neutrons. Helium: 2p + 2n= mass of 4.
	atomic weight- equal to the mass number of its most abundant isotope.
	Isotopes- two or more structural variations- protons and electrons, but neutrons vary,
Radioisotopes	Radioisotopes- heavier and unstable, tend to release energy.
	radioactivity spontaneous atomic decay, ejection of electromagnetic particles (gamma)
	Radioisotopes Used in medicine: diagnose and treat thyroid or treat cancers
Molecules and compounds	compound when two or more atoms form a molecule. Ex. 4H + C = CH4 (methane)
Chemical bonds	atoms combine or dissociate from other atoms.
	Chemical bonds are not actual structures but a energy relationship that involves electron interactions.
	Electron shells are the orbits, the max number is 7, the furthest electron will react with other atoms.
	7 shells max, shell 1 two electrons closest to nucleus, shell two holds 8, shell 3 up to 18, others can hold more.
1/19/2025	Covalent bond- no lost or gain electrons. Hydrogen can share a electron with a different element.
	synthesis reaction- when one or two or more atoms form a large more complex molecule.
	energy must be absorbed to make bonds.
	Decomposition reaction: when molecule is broken down into smaller molecule. Catabolic
	Exchange reactions- simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions. Switch is made. Glucose to ATP to ADP
Biochemistry	study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter
	Organic compounds contain carbon
	Inorganic compounds- water, salt, acids, and bases
	Both are essential for life
	carbohydrates- proteins, lipids, nucleic acids etc are organic
water	most abundant inorganic compound, 60-80% i
	Salts- H+ ionic compound, when dissolved in water they dissociate into their compound ions.
	Acids- substances that release hydrogen ions. Proton donor (hydrochloric acid, carbonic acid)
	dissociate in water
	Bases- take up hydrogen ions, proton acceptors, hydroxyl ions, hydroxides, magnesium hydroxide
	Bicarbonate, ammonia.
pH scale	measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions/hydroxyl ions
	PH: measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions/Hydroxyl in the body fluids. Acidity/alkaline. Ph7 neutral.
	Acid-base balance is regulated by the kidneys and lungs and buffers present in body fluids
	living cells are extremely sensitive to slight changes in PH.
	Base solution (alkaline) egg white, bleach, ammonia, lye, sodium hydroxide
	Acidic solution- milk, urine, coffee, wine, lemon juice, hydrochloric acid.
	neutralization- when acids and base mix they react with each other
	Buffers- homeostasis is acid-base is carefully regulated by lungs and kidney. Increase resistance to acid and alkalinity
Organic compounds	molecules unique to a living system all contain carbon, large molecules: functional groups, acid groups, amines.
	Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
	Carbon- electro-neutral, never loses or gains electrons, forms covalent bonds, shares electron with other elements.
	long chain molecules, ring structures, joined together by dehydration synthesis. Dehydration and Hydrolysis synthesis.
	Carbohydrates- sugars and starches, contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
	Monosaccharides (glucose, ribose (DNA), fructose): single chai/ring structures containing 3-7 carbon atoms, simple sugar.
	disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose): formed when two monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis, double sugar,
	disacc. Are to large to pass cell membrane, need to be broken down by hydrolysis (opposite dehydration synthesis)
	polysaccharides (starch, glycogen): polymers of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis.
Carbohydrate function	Ready, easy source of cellular fuel. Most cells can only use a few types of simple sugars.
	Glucose breakdown releases energy: ATP. Electrons are released and energy for activity.
	When ATP is adequate, carbs are converted to glycogen or fat and stored until needed.
	Lipids- triglycerides, steroids, A,K, E,D vitamins. Cell Membranes. Not soluble in water, dissolve in solvents like alcohol.
Triglycerides	Triglycerides: neutral fats (fats are solid, oil is liquid), composed of 2 types of building blocks: fatty acids and Glycerol.
	Fatty acids are linear chains of carbon and hydrogen with organic acid group at one end. Glycerol simple sugar alcohol.
	Trigylc. Are found mainly beneath the skin, insulated from heat and mechanical trauma.
	Saturated fat- single covalent bond like butter
	Unsaturated fats- one of more double bonds, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated (olive oil)
	Trans fats- margarine. heart risk.
	Omega-3 fatty acids found in cold water fish, decrease heart disease.
Phospholipids	Phospholipids- modified triglycerides, Diglycerides with a phosphorus containing group and 2 fatty acid chains,
	Phospho. Used as chief material for building cellular membranes.
Steroids	Steroid- flat molecules made of four hydrocarbon rings, fat soluble.
	Cholesterol, essential for human life, sex hormones/reproduction- testosterone, estrogen, cortisol, etc. eggs, meat, cheese.
Proteins	Proteins- 10-30% body mass, basic structure of body, enzymes, hemoglobin, contractile of muscle,
	carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, organic.
	Proteins are long chains of amino acids joined together amine end to acid end.
Amino Acids	Amino Acids- building block of protein. 20 types, united amino acids:
	Dipeptides- 2 amino acids
	Tripeptide- 3 amino acids
	Polypeptide- 10 or more amino acids, containing 50 or more amino acids are a protein. 100 to 1000 subunits (macromolecules).
protein variance	sequence that amino acids are bound, 20 amino acids, sequences are like words
	Thousands of different proteins in the body.
	Fibrous proteins- structural proteins: body structures, binding in tissues- collagen in bones, cartilage, tendons, hair, nails.
	Globular proteins- functionals. Anti-bodies (immunity), hormones (growth and development), enzymes (regulate chemical reactions)
Enzymes	functional proteins act as biological catalysts- increase rate of reaction.
	An enzyme can attach two amino acids. Make a dipeptide
Nucleic acid	DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
	composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphate
	Nucleic acids- nucleotides: nitrogen containing base, a pentose sugar, phosphate group.
	There are 5 major varieties: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, thymine, uracil. A,G,C,T,U
	phosphate group and sugar can create the RNA
	Carbohydrates- monosaccharides, Lipids- fatty acids, Proteins- amino acids, Nucleic acids- nucleotides.
ATP	Adenosine Triphosphate- Glycogen, Adenine, Ribose, phosphate
	water to atp added – energy, reaction, bond breaks during…release energy like a spring.
Cell biology	Cell: smallest unit of all living things. Building blocks, highly organized.
	types, shapes (blood/o2), disc, thread (nerve), toothpick (muscle), cube (epithelial)
	WBC: wander freely throughout the body-defense. Alveoli in lungs for gas exchange, tubules in Kidney for blood cleansing.
	Anatomy: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus
	Plasma membrane is the outer boundary, cytoplasm the intracellular fluid and organelles, nucleus is the controller.
plasma membrane	flexible, transparent barrier, contains cell contents
	plays a dynamic role in many cellular functions
	2 lipid layers- polar head hydrophilic (water loving), non-polar tails (hydrophobic, water fear). Phospholipids and cholesterol.
	Protein molecules float in layers: specialized functions like enzymes, hormone receptors, chemical messengers, transport or carriers.
	Glycoproteins: branching sugar groups, identification tag, determine blood type, cell to cell interactions,
	Membrane junctions: tight junctions in GI tract, Desmosomes in skin cells, Gap junctions in cardiac muscles.
1/26/2025	200 types of cells in the body
	Simple diffusion- high and low concentrations moving across membrane.
Cell function	metabolize- nutrients to build new cell material, break down substances, make ATP.
	Solutions: mixture of two or more components, ex. Air and gases, seawater, alcohol.
	Solute: components or substances present in smaller amounts
	Solvent- largest amount in a solution. Water is the body’s main solvent.
Fluids in body	Intracellular fluids: solution containing small amounts of gases, nutrients, salts, dissolved in water.
	Interstitial fluid (extracellular)- fluid that baths the exterior of the cell, rich in nutritious soup, 1000’s of ingrediants like
	amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, vitamins, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts.
selective permeability	allow for nutrients
	Keep out undesirables
	keep in valuable proteins
	Waste allowed to pass out of cell.
Membrane transport	passive: without energy from the cell. diffusion/filtration
	Active- need energy, like ATP
	Diffusion- molecules and ions tend to scatter themselves through available space, moves along concentration gradient high to low.
	Substances will move passively through membrane if it is lipid soluble/simple diffusion.
	or small enough to pass through membrane channels. Assisted by a carrier molecule (facilitated diffusion).
	Facilitated diffusion: provided passage of larger molecules that are lipid insoluble. Ex. Glucose.
	Filtration: occurs across capillary walls. Water and solutes are forced through by hydrostatic pressure.
	Osmosis- water exchange, aquaporins created by proteins in the membrane. Water concentrations differ on two sides of a membrane
Active Transport	cell uses ATP to move substances across membranes. Substances to large to pass by diffusion
	1. Solute pumping- requires protein carriers that combine reversibly with substance, uses ATP to energize carriers. (amino acids, sugars)
	example: sodium-potassium pump
	2. Bulk transport (Exocytosis and Endocytosis)
	Exocytosis: moves substances out of the cells. Hormone secretion and mucus, ejects waste this way.
	Endocytosis- examples are phagocytosis, receptor medicated endocytosis, pinocytosis.
Cytoplasm:	Cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane.
	Cytosol is the semi-transparent fluid that suspends other elements.
	Organelles- metabolic machinery of cells. Specialized cellular compartments, perform own job. Has a membrane.
	Inclusions- nonfunctioning units. Chemical substances, stored nutrients
Mitochondria	powerhouse of cell, ATP, shape change, outer and inner membrane, enzymes in the fluid, Aerobic cellular respiration.
Ribosomes	Sites of protein synthesis, has 2 globular subunits that fit together. Make soluble protein, function in the cytosol.
Endoplasmic Reticulum	network withing cytoplasm, fluid filled tubules, mini-circulatory system, channels to carry substances from one part
	of cell to the other.
	2 forms smooth and rough.
	rough: studded with ribosomes, cell membrane factory, proteins made here to migrate into tubes. Amount of rough ER
	how much protein a cell makes. Abundant in secretory cells, plasma cells, and liver cells.
	smooth: continuous with the Rough ER, no protein synthesis occurs here. Function: Lipid metabolism
	synthesis steroid-based hormones. Detoxification of drugs and pesticides.
Golgi apparatus	Stack of flattened membranous sacs with swarms of tiny vesicles. Close to nucleus. Traffic director for proteins.
	Modify and package proteins for final destination, tagged for what they will be used for.
Lysosomes	Spherical membranous sacs containing powerful digestive enzymes. Formed by rough ER, packaged by Golgi apparatus.
	Cells demolition crew, digest worn out organelles, digest bacteria. Homeostatic imbalance.
Peroxisome	Spherical membrane sacs, contain oxidase (detox poisons) and catalase
	neutralize free radicals. Numerous kidney and liver cells.
Cytoskeleton	elaborate network of protein substances throughout cytoplasm, cells bones and muscles, framework
	composed of microfilaments (actin proteins, help motility) (internal wiring) , intermediate fibers and microtubules (shape cell)
Centrioles	generate microtubules and mitotic spindles., base for cilia and flagella.
Cell extensions	Cilia: whip like cellular extensions, move substances along cell surface. Respiratory system
	Flagella: longer cell projections, propulsion of self, sperm.
	Microvilli: little shaggy hairs, specialization of plasma membrane, small intestines.
Nuceleus	Nuclear envelope, chromatin, nucleolus, nuclear pores
	control center- DNA- genetic material.
	Nuclear envelope, double membrane barrier, fluid filled sac, rough endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear pores- complex proteins
	neoplasm- jelly like fluid enclosed in the nucleus.
	Nucleoli- 1 or more in the nucleus. Site of ribosome assembly that migrates to cytoplasm later.
	Chromatin- 30% DNA/genetic material, 60% Histone pr. Package and regulated DNA. 10% RNA chain
	Nucleosome- fundamental unit of chromatin. 9 histones, packaging means, when divided coiled and condensed chromosome.
2/3/2025	
Cell growth and reproduction	
Cell Cycle	series of change a cell goes through until it divides. 2 major phases: interphase and Cell division.
Interphase	G1- growth, cell grows and functions normal. Protein synthesis.
	S- growth and DNA synthesis. DNA replication. Each chromosome has two identical sister chromatids linked at Centromere.
	G2- Growth and Final preparations for division
	checkpoint G2- replicated DNA checked for errors before division.
Mitotic phase (M)	
Mitosis	Prophase
	Metaphase
	Anaphase
	Telophase
Last	Cytokinesis
DNA replication	DNA helix unzips, two nucleotide chains as templates. Order of nucleotides on the template-> order of new strand
	TAGCAGTA ->, end results is two DNA molecules that are identical to the original DNA helix.
	inside the chromosome, enzymes unwind the double helix, free nucleotides are assembled by DNA polymerase, new strand of DNA
	Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
Events of cell division	2 events:
	Mitosis: division of nucleus, occurs first, results in two daughter cells.
	Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm begins during the anaphase end of mitosis.
Mitosis	cell division in which one cell (mother) divides to produce (daughter) cells genetically identical.
	DNA splits in two equal sets of chromosomes.
	Prophase: chromatin threads coil and shorten chromosomes, centrioles separate from each other, move toward opposite sides.
	mitotic spindle, nuclear envelope and nucleoli break down and temp. disappear, chromosomes attach to spindle fibers.
	Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the center of spindle
	Anaphase: Chromosomes being to move slowly apart, drawn toward opposite ends of the cell.
	Telophase: “prophase in reverse” Chromosomes uncoil to become threadlike chromatin again, the spindle breaks down and
	disappear, a nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass, and nucleoli appears in each of the daughter nuclei.
Protein synthesis	Proteins are key substances for all aspects of cell life
	Fibrous (structural)= major building materials.
	Globular (functional) = perform functional roles.
	Enzymes speed up every chemical reaction
	Every cell needs to produce proteins.
	DNA blueprints are called genes. Gene is a DNA segment that carries information for building one protein.
	Help of nucleic acid RNA.
	Genes are encoded in the sequence of bases. 3 bases (triplet) call for a particular amino acid.
	AAA- phenylalanine
	CCT- Glycine
	A single gene= 300 to 3000 base pairs.
Role of RNA	Genes need to be decoded before they become useful.
	Information als needs to get to cytoplasm.
	DNA does not leave nucleus during interphase.
	Need a decoder and messenger to specify the structure of proteins to be built by ribosomes.
3 varieties of RNA	mRNA- messenger containing instructions for protein formation from DNA to Ribosomes
	rRNA- ribosomal. helps from the ribosomes.
	tRNA- transfers amino acids to peptide chains
	RNA is single stranded, ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose. Uracil (U) base instead of Thymine (T).
Protein synthesis	2 major parts:
	Transcription: mRNA made of DNA gene. In nucleus from Dna to mRNA.
	Only DNA and mRNa involved in this stage, 3 base sequences on DNA (triplet) is matched to a 3 base sequence on mRNA (codon)
	Form is different- information is the same.
	example: DNA- AAT- CGT- TCG. mRNA- UUA- GCA- AGC
	Translation: information carried by mRNA is “decoded” and used to assemble proteins at the ribosome.
	takes words from one language and restates them in another. Language of nucleic acids (base sequence) translated
	into the language of proteins (amino acid chains).
	Occur in cytoplasm, mRNA attaches to the ribosome- activates tRNA. Function of tRNA- carry amino acids to ribosome.
	45 common type sof tRNA- carries 1 of 20 amino acids.
	tRNA recognizes mRNA codons ‘double check’ . Has an area called Anticodon, special 3 base sequence.
	Located on the head of tRNA that binds to complementary codon on mRNA.
	Amino acid that tRNA is carrying us then bound to chain. Releases tRNA which moves away to go pick up another amino acid.
	Termination or stop codon, last codon of gen UGA, UAA, UAG. Protein is released.
Abbreviation/Amino Acid	UCAG First Base | Second base | Third base
Ala (Alanine)	GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG
Arg (Arginine)	CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG
Asn (Asparagine)	AAU, AAC
Asp (Aspartic acid)	GAU, GAC
Cys (Cysteine)	UGU, UGC, UGA (stop)
Glu (Glutamic acid)	GAA, GAG
Gln (Glutamine)	CAA, CAG
Gly (Glycine)	GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG
His (Histidine)	CAU, CAC
ile (isoleucine)	AUU, AUC, AUA,
Leu (Leucine)	UUA, UUG. CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG
Lys (Lysine)	AAA, AAG
Met (methionine)	AUG (START)
Phe (Phenylalanine)	UUU, UUC
Pro (Proline)	CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG
Ser (Serine)	UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU, AGC
Thr (Threonine)	ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG
Trp (Tryptophan)	UGG
Tyr (Tyrosine)	UAU, UAC, UAA (stop), UAG (stop)
Val (Valine)	GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG
Tissues	Group of cells with similar structure and functions
	Some are highly specialized in performing functions that benefit whole organism
	Tissues are organized into organs
	Organs contain two or more tissue layers
	arrangement determine organ structure and function
Classification of body tissues	4 types
	1. Epithelial (covering)- forms boundaries, protects, absorbs, lining of digestive organs, skin
	2. Connective (supportive)- supports, protects. Bones, tendons, fat.
	3. Muscular (movement)- contracts for movement, bones, heart, and walls of smooth organs.
	4. Nervous (control)- brain, spinal cord, nerves.
Epithelial	Outer layer of skin, dips into the lines of the open cavities of the urogenital, digestive, and respiratory system
	covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity.
	Glandular epithelium- fashions the glands of the body,
	protection- cilia respiratory tract
	filtration- kidneys
	secretion- specialty glands, sweat, oil, digestion, enzymes, mucus.
Classification epithelial tissue	Squamous cell- flattened. Allow materials to pass via diffusion. Kidneys, lungs, heart lining, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels.
	cuboidal- cube shape, secretion and absorptions. Kidney tubules, ducts, small glands, ovary surface.
	Columnar- columns shape. Absorption, secrete mucous, propels, stomach, rectum, bronchii, uterine tubes, uterus.
	pseudo stratified columnar epithelium- mucous and ciliary action. Sperm ducts, trachea, respiratory tract.
	stratified squamous epithelium- named for cell layer that is located at the free surface not the one resting on basement membrane
	It has two or more layers, to protect Esophagus mouth, vagina, and epidermis of skin.
	stratified cuboid epithelium- seat glands, mammary glands, salivary glands
	stratified columnar epithelium- male urethra, large ducts of some glands.
	transitional epithelium- ureters, bladder, part of urethra.
Connective tissue	2 main elements, structureless ground substance
	water and adhesion proteins and large charged polysaccharide molecules
	fibers- 3 types
	Collagen- white, highly tensile
	Elastic- yellow- stretch and recoil
	Reticular- fine collagen fibers- internal skeleton of soft organs.
Loose	Areolar- widely distributed under epithelia of body, mucous membranes, packages organs, surrounds capillaries
	Adipose- reserve for fuel, support and protect, under skin in subcutaneous tissue.
	Reticular- fine collagen fibers- internal skeleton of soft organs. Lymphoid organs like nodes, bone marrow, spleen.
Dense	Regular- attach muscles to bones, tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses.
	Irregular- withstand tension. Capsules of organs and joints, dermis of skin, submucosa of digestive tract.
	Elastic- tissue to recoil. Walls of large arteries, vertebrae ligaments, walls of bronchial tubes.
Cartilage	Hyaline- resilient cushion and compressive stress. Skeleton, ends of long bones, costal cartilages of ribs, nose, trachea, larynx
	Elastic- maintains shape, external ear, epiglottis.
	Fibrocartilage- tensile strength, intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joint.
	Bone- osseous, also stores calcium and minerals, fat, and marrow for hematopoiesis.
	Blood- transport gases, nutrients, waste, and substances.
Muscle tissue	contracts and shortens, produces movement
	Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
	Skeletal- long, cylindrical, multinucleate, voluntary movement, locomotion, facial expression,
	Cardiac- branching, striated, propels blood into the circulation. Walls of heart.
	Smooth- spindle shaped, no striation, form sheets, to propel substances like food, urine, baby. Walls of hollow organs.
Nervous tissue	neurons and supporting cells, receive and conduct electrochemical impulses from 1 part of body to another.
	functional characteristics- irritability and conductivity
	supporting cells- insulate support and protect neurons,
	Found in brain and spinal cord and nerves.
	Axon, dendrites, cells.
	Brain, spinal cord, nerves.
2/16/2025	
Classification of body membranes	cover surfaces, line body cavities, protect sheets around organs, lubricate
	epithelial membranes like cutaneous skin, mucous, serous
	Connective tissue is like synovial.
Cutaneous-	superficial epidermis, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
	Dermis- dense connective tissue
	Exposed to air, dry membranes.
Mucous	epithelial resting on loose connective tissue, type of cells varies by site
	Lines all body cavities that open to exterior such as hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory and urogenital tracts.
	Mucosa is location not cellular make-up
	wet moist membranes, continuously bathed in secretions, most but not all secrete mucus.
	adapted for absorption or secretion
Serous	Layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on areolar loose connective tissue
	Line body cavities that are close to the exterior
	Exception- dorsal body cavity, joint cavities.
	Occur in pairs:
	Parietal layer- line cavity walls
	visceral layer- cover the organs
	Thin clear fluid is found between layers.
	(parietal pleura of lungs and visceral pleura of lungs) parietal pericardium and visceral pericardium.
	Mucous membranes line body cavities open to the exterior
	Serous membranes line body cavities close to the exterior
Synovial	No epithelial cells.
	Bursae- lubricating sacs that reduce movement, related friction,
	Tendon sheath- tube-like covering over a tendon
	Both cushion organs moving against each other during muscle activity.
16-Feb	
Nutrition	A fraction of nutrients is used to build cellular molecules and structures
	most foods are used as metabolic fuels- ATP
	The energy value of foods is measured in units called kilocalories (kcal)
	Foods are digested and absorbed by the Qi system, what happens to these foods once enter blood
	Nutrients are a substance in food that is ready to use to promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair.
	major: Carbs, Lipids, proteins. Large amounts.
	Minor- vitamin and minerals, small amounts
	Water- major nutrient
	Fruits- carb, water, vitamins
	Vegetables- carb, water, vitamin, mineral
	Grain- carb, protein, vitamin, fiber
	Milk- protein, fat, vitamin, mineral
	Meats- protein, vitamin, fat
recommendation	Healthy eating pyramid- whole grain, fruits, veggies, plant oil vs animal fat.
	Myplate us gov: half plate fruit and veggies and quarter each- meat and grain. Small amount of dairy. “Balanced diet”
Carbohydrates	Carbohydrates are from plants except milk sugar (lactose)
	sugars come mainly from grain, legumes, root veggies
	Polysaccharide cellulose (startch) is not digested by humans, but provide fiber, increases the bulk of the stool and aids digestion.
Lipids	Lipids: triglycerides, we ingest cholesterol and phospholipids.
	We eat saturated fats in animal products like meat and dairy
	Unsaturated fats are present in seeds, nuts, and vegetable oils.
	Major sources of cholesterol are egg yolk, meats, and milk. HDL good cholesterol- prevent ischemic. LDL bad causing arteriosclerosis.
	Keto diet- ketoacidosis that can cause osteoporosis.
proteins	animal products/ Eggs, milk, fish, meat complete proteins
	Meet all of the body’s amino acids
	Amino acids 20- 12 are non-essential and 8 are essential. Cannot produce those 8 in the body, diet essential to get them.
	Strict vegans must carefully plan diet to prevent malnutrition.
	Ceral grains and legumes provided many needed amino acids.
Vitamins	Organic nutrients of various forms that the body requires in small amounts
	No one food contains all the required vitamins
	A balanced diet is the best way to ensure a ful vitamin complement.
	Most vitamins function as coenzymes, they act with enzymes to accomplish particular catalysis.
	Fat soluble vitamins- A,D,E,K
	Water soluble vitamins- B family, C
	vitamin A- (retinol) for eyes, carotenoids. Toxicity- spontaneous abortion
	vitamin D- regular blood calcium, toxicity- hypercalcemia
	vitamin E- protect cell membrane, toxicity rare
	Vitamin K- blood coagulation, injected in babies.
	Vitamin b1- thiamine, carb and amino metabolism, in alcoholics deficiency.
	b2- riboflavin, fat metabolism
	b3- niacin, metabolism carb and fat, DNA replication. Toxicity- flushing, liver issues
	b6- metabolism, toxicity nerve damage
	b9 folate, amino acid metabolism, toxicity- nerve damage. (folic acid neural defect in a baby)
	b12- formation of blood, for nervous system myelin sheath
	b5- fat metabolism
	Vitamin c- antioxidant, , immune, collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters,
Minerals	Major minerals- calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sodium, chloride, magnesium
	Trace minerals- copper, zinc, iron, selenium
	Sodium- fluid balance, nervous impulses, acid-base balance. excess – water retention, loss of calcium. Extracellular
	Potassium- fluid balance, nerve impulses. Toxcitiy- irregular heartbeat. Intracellular.
2/23/2025	More sodium in body is more fluid. Fluid retention. HBP risk. Def. is muscle cramps and dizziness.
	Potassium: toxic- heart arrythmias, def. heart irregular.
	Phosphorous for bone formation, toixc muscles spasms
	Chloride- fluid balance and ST acid, table salt. Def. imbalance in blood pH
	Calcium- bone and muscles. Def. osteoporosis.
	Magnesium- muscle relaxation, def- muscle spasm.
	Sulfur- acid-base balance, detox of liver. Protein rich foods.
	Selenium- metabolism tox. Brittle hair and nail, liver disease, def: heart disease
	fluoride: teetch and bones, def> dental caries
	Iodine: thyroid hormone, temp regulation and reproduction, tx. Goiter, def. hypothyroidism, cretinism/mental retardation
	Chromium- glucose transportation, metabolism DNA/RNA, def. elevated blood glucose,
	iron- hemoglobin of blood cell, carry oxygen, tox. Nauseavmit, organ damage, def.: anemia.
	zinc- 100 enzyme systems, immune, growth, sexual maturity, tox. Nausea, vomit, def: delayed sexual malnutrition,, eye skin lesions
	copper- iron transport, , tox. Nausea, vomit, liver damage, def: anemia, low WBC, osteoporosis.
Metabolism	Catabolism- breakdown of substances to simple substances. (ATP example)
	Anabolism- building larger molecules or structures from smaller ones.
	Proteins- carbs- fats:
	stage 1: anabolism: proteins, glucose (Glycoloysis) to pyruvic acid- acetyl CoA to kreb cycle.
	Carbohydrate- glucose (main source of energy). In the mitochondria.
	Glycolysis- in the cytosol, anerobic process, energizes each glucose molecule so that it can be split into 2 pyruvic acid molecules
	A small amount of ATP is released, hydrogen are temporarily passed to vitamin containing coenzymes (vit B3)
	phase 1 sugar activation- glucose 2 atp, phase 2 sugar cleavage- fructose, phase 3 sugar oxidation ATP form 4 ATP molecules.
	Citric acid cycle: pyruvic acid- acetyl-Coa, citrate. NADH- GTP (ATP) – Fadh2 to NADH
	yields small amount of ATP
	Citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondria, produces virtually all the carbon dioxide that results during cell respiration.
	Krebs cycle– cell, cellular respiration, NAD, NADH+H, ATP
Electron transport chain	where the action is for ATP production, hydrogen atoms removed during first two metabolic phases are loaded with energy
	hydrogens delivered by the coenzymes to the protein carriers of the electron transport chain H+ and E- give off their load ADP to ATP
	Free oxygen is reduced forming water and large amount ATP, Oxidative phosphorylation, small amount energy lost in heat.
Fat Metabolism	Liver handles most lipid.
	Hepatocytes- use some fats to make STP for their own use
	use some to synthesize lipoproteins, thromboplastin and cholesterol. Release rest into blood
	Body cells remove the fat to build them into their membranes or steroid hormones as needed,
	Fat products to ATP must be broken down to acetic acid, within mitochondria the acetic acid is completely oxidized and
	carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are formed. When there is not enough glucose, fats are used to produce ATP
	Excess fat stored in fat deposits like hips, abdomen, breasts, subcutaneous tissue.
	Fat oxidation is fast but incomplete. Intermediate products accumulate in the blood
	Keto acidosis- fruit odor, no-carb diets, uncontrolled diabetes, starvation
protein metabolism	proteins make up the bulk of cellular structures
	ingested proteins are broken down to amino acids
	cells remove amino acids from the blood and use them to build proteins
	for their own use (enzymes, membranes, mitotic spindle proteins, muscle proteins)
	for export (mucus, hormones, and other.
	Cells use ATP to actively transport amino acids into their interior
	Cells cannot build their protein unless all the amino acids are needed. Amino acids are used to make ATP only
	When proteins are over abundant, when carbohydrates and fats are not available.
	Oxidize amino acids for energy: amine groups are removed as ammonia.
	The rest if the molecule enters the citric acid cycle pathway in mitochondria.
Energy balance	Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to another. Energy intake is total energy output
	(heat (60%) + work + energy storage). If energy intake and energy output are balanced- body weight remains stable.
	how food intake controlled: no one receptor been identified, neural signals from digestive tract related to body energy stores,
	and hormones, body temperature and psychological factors.
Metabolic rate	Carb- 4 kcal/gram
	Protein- 4 kcal/gram
	Fats- 9 kcal/gram
	Alcohol 7kcal/gram
	Most meals are mixtures, we must know how many grams of each type of nutrient it contains. Diet apps, nutritional facts, etc.
BMR	Basic Metabolic rate- BRM is the amount of heat produced by the body per unit of time when it is under basal conditions (rest).
	it reflects the energy supply a person’s body needs just to perform essential life activities like breathing, heartbeat, kidney function
	An average 70 kg (154 lb) adults has a BMR of about 60 70 72 kcal.hour.
	Factors: surface area, sex, thyroxines production, age, strong emotions.
	Men: BMR= 10 x weight (kg) or (6.25 x height (cm) or 5 x age (years) +5
	
TMR	Total metabolic rate, the total amount of kilo calories the body must consume to fuel all ongoing activities.
	When we are active the body must oxidize more glucose to provide energy for additional activities.
	Muscular work is the major body activity that increases the TMR. Total consumed = TMR – homeostasis is maintained, weight constant
	The principle is in every weight loss diet. The total kilocalories needed are calculated,
	20% more of the requirements are cut from the daily diet
Temp regulation	ATP is not the only product of cell catabolism, most energy escapes as heat. 40% of available food energy is captured as ATP.
	Heat released warms the tissues and the blood, which circulates to all body tissues, keeping them at homeostatic temperatures.
	Body temperature reflects the balance between heat production and heat loss.
	Hypothalamus is for body temperature regulation; Through the autonomic ns pathways the hypothalamus continuously regulates body
	temperature around a set point of 37 c, fluctuating within the range of 35.6 to 37.8 (96 to 100)
	Hypothalamus does this by initiating heat=promoting mechanisms or heat loss mechanism.
	
BMI	BMR 70%, thermogenesis is 10%, physical activity is 20% (Daily expenditure)
	BMI does not measure body fat directly; it appears to be correlates with various metabolic and disease outcomes as more
	direct measures of body fatness. A high BMI can be a indicator of body fatness.
	It can be a screening tool but not diagnostic.
	BMI- underweight, healthy weight, overweight, obese class I, II, III
3/2/2025	
Fluid Balance	
Water Balance	60% male
	50 % female
	75% newborn
	Total volume 40l, 25 L will be inside the intracellular compartments, 12 L interstitial, 3L plasma
	Water occupies the 3 main locations with the body= fluid compartments
	2/3 of body fluid is intracellular fluid (ICF), contained in living cells
	1/3 is extracellular fluid (ECF) including all bodily fluids located outside the cell:
	Blood plasma, interstitial fluid (IF), Lymph, Trans-cellular fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, serous fluid, humors of the eye, etc.
Plasma	Blood plasma and interstitial fluids carry in and out nutrients and wastes
	plasma circulates throughout the body delivering substances. Exchange occur continuously in the lungs, GI tract, and kidneys.
	These exchanges alter plasma. Adjustments in the other 2 compartments follow quickly so that balance is restored.
	O2 and CO2 from lungs, nutrients and h20 in GI, ions and nitrogenous waste- kidneys.
Water Balance	we cannot lose more water than we take in
	water intake: fluids and foods. Small amount- cellular metabolism/respiration.
	4% feces 100ml
	8% sweat 200 ml
	28% respiration 700ml
	60% urine 1500 ml
	Hypotension- dehydration.
	high blood pressure, edema- increase of water,
Thirst	driving force for water intake
	saliva- dry mouth, hypothalamic thirst center- sensation of thirst- drink- water moistens mouth/stomach- into GI, plasma solutes
	an increase in plasma solute- excites highly sensitive cells in hypothalamus Osmoreceptors
	active hypothalamic thirst center
	Nerve impulses are sent to the posterior pituitary
	Anti diuretic hormone ADH prevents water loss. Mouth becomes dry, less saliva is produced.
	reduced filtrate volume or solute in renal tubules- JG kd cells- Renin- Angiotensin II in blood- vasoconstriction BP up
	Angiotensin II- adrenal cortex- Aldosterone- Kd tubules- Na reabsorption- high blood volume up
	Hypothalamic osmoreceptors- posterior pituitary- ADH- collecting ducts of KD- H20 reabsorption- blood volume up
Electrolyte balance	Very small changes in electrolyte concentrations in the fluid compartments cause water to move from one to another.
	Alters blood volume and blood pressure.
	Impairs the activity of irritable cells.
	Aldosterone- regulates sodium ion content. Can increase BP and BV. NA- for osmotic water flow. Too few (edema)
Acid-Base Balance	Acids produced: lactic acid, Fatty acid, Carbon dioxide to carbonic acid. Ammonia released blood.
	Balance mechanism: chemical buffers in blood, lungs, kidneys
	for cells to function properly blood pH between 7.35 and 7.45
	pH of arterial blood rises above 7.45 alkalosis
	pH a drop in arterial pH below 7.35 is Acidosis
	small amount of acidic substances enter the body in ingested foods
	Most H ions originate as by-products of cellular metabolism- disturb acid- base balance.
	Moving more toward acidosis is because of CO2. breathing issues, ventilation. Asthma/COPD. “Respiratory acidosis”
	sleep apnea, kyphosis, myasthenia gravis, toxicity with opioid.
	Balance mechanisms- chemical buffers in the blood
	Lungs- respiration
	Kidney- assumes most of the load for maintaining acid- base balance of the blood
	Dka- diabetic keto acidosis
Buffers	one or two molecules that act to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen ion concentration when acids or bases are added.
	They do this by binding to H ions whenever pH drops and by releasing H ions when pH rises.
	The chemical buffers act within a fraction of a second, so they are the first line of defense in resisting pH changes.
	Strong acids (HCI) dissociate completely and liberate all H ions in water
	Weak acids such as carbonic acid (H2CO3) release only some of the H and so have a lesser effect on pH
	weak acids are effective at preventing pH changes. Forced to dissociate and release more H when the pH rises over desirable pH range
	Strong bases such as hydroxides dissociate easily in water
	Weak bases such as bicarbonate ion and ammonia are slower to accept H
	as pH drops, the weak bases become “stronger” and begin to tie up more H
	3 major chemical buffers of the body are bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffer systems
	Bicarbonate buffer system: carbonic acid H2CO3: weak acid. Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3: its salt
	Bicarbonate ions (HCO3) act as bases to tie up the hydrogen ions released by stronger acid
	HCI (strong acid) + NaHCO3 (weak base) – H2CO3 (weak acid) +NaCL (salt)
	If a strong base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added to a solution containing the bicarbonate buffer system, NaHCO3 will
	not dissociate further under such alkaline conditions
	Carbonic acid will be forced to dissociate further, releasing more H to bind with the OH released by NaOH
	NaOH (strong base) + H2CO3 (weak acid) -> NaHCO3 (weak base) + H2O
Respiratory mechanism	The respiratory system eliminates carbon dioxide from the blood.
	When CO2 enters the blood from the tissue cells, most of it enters the RBC where it is converted to bicarbonate ion (HCO3)
	for transport in the plasma. CO2 + H20 – H2CO3- H + HCO3
	Increase in CO2 pushed the reaction to the rt. More carbonic acid
	Increase in H to the left- more carbonic acid.
	In healthy people co2 is expelled from the lungs at the same rate it is formed in the tissues
	under normal conditions the H produced by CO2 transport has essentially no effect on blood pH
	when CO2 accumulates in the blood or more H is released to the blood by metabolic processes…
	Chemoreceptors in the respiratory control centers of the brain are activated- increase breathing rate and depth.
	when blood pH begins to rise (Alkalosis) the respiratory center is depressed
	Respiratory rate and depth fall – CO2 and H to accumulate in the blood.
	Breathing control centers in pons and medulla.
	Afferent impulses to medulla from CO2 and H increase in tissue, O2 sensor indicate O2 decrease.
	Efferent impulse- Phrenic and Intercoastal nerves trigger contractions inspiratory muscles: intercostal and diaphragm
Renal mechanism	Only the kidneys can rid the body of other acids generated during metabolism
	Only the kidneys have the power to regulate blood levels of alkaline substances
	They act slowly and require hours or days to change blood pH, but they are the most potent of the pH regulating mechanism
	Mostly by excreting bicarbonate ions and reabsorbing new bicarbonate ions
	as blood pH rises, bicarbonate ions are excreted, and H ions are retained by the tubule cells
	When blood pH falls, bicarbonate is reabsorbed and generated, and h ions are secreted
	Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0
	which reflects the ability of the renal tubules to excrete basic or acid ions to maintain blood pH homeostasis.